LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES 9 PREFACE 11 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 What is Contrastive Linguistics? 1 1.1.1 The Name and Nature of Contrastive Linguistics 2 1.1.1.1 Linguistics 2 1.1.1.2 Contrastive Linguistics (Contrastive Analysis) 4 1.1.2 Micro-Contrastive Linguistics and Macro-Contrastive Linguistics 10 1.2 Why Contrastive Linguistics? 11 1.2.1 The Theoretical Need for Contrastive Linguistics 12 1.2.2 The Practical Need for Contrastive Linguistics 13 1.3 The History and Development of Contrastive Linguistics 18 Questions for Discussion and Research 26 CHAPTER 2 THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 28 2.1 Basic Assumptions and Hypotheses Underlying Contrastive Analysis (CA) 28 2.1.1 The Psychological Basis of Contrastive Analysis: Transfer 29 2.1.2 The Strong and Weak Versions of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 30 2.1.3 The Predictive Power of Contrastive Analysis 31 2.2 Theoretical Contrastive Analysis and Applied Contrastive Analysis 32 2.3 Criteria for Comparison 37 2.3.1 The Surface Structure (SS) 38 2.3.2 The Deep Structure (DS) 40 2.3.3 Translation Equivalence 44 2.4 Procedures of Contrastive Analysis 49 Questions for Discussion and Research 50
CHAPTER 3 PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 52 3.1 Phonetics and Phonology 52 3.2 Contrastive Phonetics 54 3.2.1 Articulatory Phonetics 54 3.2.1.1 Vocal organs (articulators) and the dynamics of voice production 54 3.2.1.2 The modulation of speech sounds 58 3.2.2 Acoustic Phonetics 60 3.2.2.1 Frequency 60 3.2.2.2 Amplitude of vibration 61 3.2.2.3 Timbre 61 3.2.3 Auditory Phonetics 62 3.3 Contrastive Phonology 65 3.3.1 Phonological Contrastive Analysis 65 3.3.1.1 The functional statuses of comparable speech sounds in different languages 65 3.3.1.2 Pronunciation problems caused by phonemic asymmetries and by allophonic differences 66 3.3.1.3 The functional loads of comparable phonological contrasts in different languages 67 3.3.2 Two Phonological Models 68 3.3.2.1 The taxonomic or structural phonology 68 3.3.2.2 Generative phonology 69 3.4 Suprasegmental Contrastive Analysis 71 3.4.1 The Contrastive Analysis of Pitch 72 3.4.1.1 Tone 72 3.4.1.2 Intonation 73 3.4.2 The Contrastive Analysis of Juncture 75 Questions for Discussion and Research 76 CHAPTER 4 LEXICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 78 4.1 Contrastive Lexical Morphology 79 4.1.1 Lexical/Derivational Morphology and Inflectional Morphology 79 4.1.2 Morpheme 80 4.1.2.1 Free morpheme 80 4.1.2.2 Bound morpheme 80 4.1.2.2.1 Affix 80 4.1.2.2.2 Combining form 81 4.1.2.3 Stem (base morpheme) and root 81 4.1.3 A Comparison of the Makeup of English and Chinese Word Stock 82 4.2 Contrastive Lexical Semantics 84 4.2.1 The Motivation (Internal Form) of Words 85 4.2.1.1 Phonetic motivation 86 4.2.1.2 Graphemic motivation 86 4.2.1.3 Morphological motivation 87 4.2.1.4 Semantic motivation 87 4.2.1.5 A contrastive analysis of the morphological motivation of English, German, and Chinese words 87 4.2.2 Sense Relationships 91 4.2.2.1 Syntagmatic semantic relationship: Collocation 92 4.2.2.2 Paradigmatic semantic relationships 94 4.2.2.2.1 Synonymy 94 4.2.2.2.2 Antonymy 95 4.2.2.2.3 Hyponymy 96 4.2.2.2.4 Incompatibility 98 4.2.2.3 Lexical fields and lexical gaps 98 4.2.3 Semantic Features 103 4.3 Three Active Areas 107 4.3.1 Anthropology 108 4.3.2 Translation 114 4.3.3 Bilingual Lexicography 118 Questions for Discussion and Research 119 CHAPTER 5 GRAMMATICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 122 5.1 The Concept of Grammar 122 5.2 The Contrastive Analysis of Inflectional Morphology 124 5.2.1 Grammatical Categories 126 5.2.1.1 Aspect 126 5.2.1.2 Case 128 5.2.1.3 Gender 129 5.2.1.4 Mood 129 5.2.1.5 Number 129 5.2.1.6 Person 130 5.2.1.7 Tense 130 5.2.1.8 Voice 130
5.2.2 A Contrastive Study of the Chinese and English Case Systems 131 5.3 Syntactic Contrastive Analysis 135 5.3.1 The Structural Approach (Surface-structure Contrasts) 135 5.3.2 The Weaknesses of the Structural Approach 139 5.3.3 The Generative Approaches 140 5.3.3.1 The Transformational Grammarian approach (For deep-structure contrasts) 141 5.3.3.2 The Case Grammarian approach (For deeper-structure contrasts) 147 Questions for Discussion and Research 154 CHAPTER 6 TEXTUAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 156 6.1 Text and Discourse 158 6.2 The Defining Characteristics of the Text 159 6.3 The Contrastive Analysis of Textual Cohesion 162 6.3.1 Semantic Cohesion 164 6.3.1.1 Reference 164 6.3.1.2 Substitution 167 6.3.1.3 Ellipsis 168 6.3.1.4 Conjunction 170 6.3.1.5 Lexical relationships ("lexical cohesion") 174 6.3.2 Structural Cohesion 175 6.3.2.1 Parallelism 175 6.3.2.2 Comparison 180 6.3.2.3 Information structure 180 6.3.2.3.1 Theme and Rheme 181 6.3.2.3.2 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 182 6.3.2.3.3 Topic and Comment 183 6.3.3 Different Languages Preferring Different Cohesive Devices 192 6.4 The Contrastive Analysis of Textual Coherence 192 Questions for Discussion and Research 200 CHAPTER 7 PRAGMATIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 203 7.1 Speech Act Theory 203 7.1.1 Speech Acts 204 7.1.1.1 Performatives and constatives 204 7.1.1.2 Three kinds of speech acts 204 7.1.1.3 Five basic types of illocutionary acts 205 7.1.2 Felicity Conditions 206 7.2 Conversational Interaction 207 7.2.1 The Structural Components of Conversation 208 7.2.1.1 Openings 208 7.2.1.2 The maintaining of a conversation 210 7.2.1.3 Closings 215 7.2.2 Principles of Conversational Organization 217 7.2.2.1 The Cooperative Principle (Be Clear) 217 7.2.2.1.1 Conversational maxims 217 7.2.2.1.2 Conversational implicature 218 7.2.2.2 The Rules of Politeness (Be Polite) 221 7.2.2.2.1 Rule 1: Don't impose on your hearer 221 7.2.2.2.2 Rule 2: Give the hearer options 223 7.2.2.2.3 Rule 3: Make the hearer feel good: Be friendly 223 Questions for Discussion and Research 225 REFERENCES 227 INDEX 235
