Acknowledgements Abstract 摘要 List of Acronyms List of Tables and Figures Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Research background 1.2 Rationale for the study 1.3 Purpose of the study 1.4 Research questions 1.5 Significance of the study 1.6 Layout of the dissertation 1.7 Chapter summary Chapter Two -Literature Review 2.1 The nature of reading 2.2 Models of the reading process 2.2.1 Bottom-up model 2.2.2 Top-down model 2.2.3 Interactive model 2.2.4 Schema theory 2.2.5 Bruer's cognitive model of reading process 2.3 Different modes of reading 2.4 Factors affecting reading comprehension 2.4.1 Reader attributes 2.4.2 Skill factors 2.4.3 Text characteristics 2.4.4 Method effects 2.5 Reading tasks 2.5.1 Definitions of task 2.5.1.1 Language learning task 2.5.1.2 Language using task 2.5.1.3 Language assessment task 2.5.1.4 Definition of reading task in this dissertation 2.5.2 Task difficulty dimensions 2.5.2.1 Robinson's model of task complexity 2.5.2.2 Skehan's model of task difficulty 2.5.2.3 An operational linguistic model of task difficulty 2.5.2.4 ‘Sources of variation' from Bachman's perspective 2.5.3 Exploration into multiple-choice reading task difficulty 2.5.3.1 Readability studies 2.5.3.2 Other approaches 2.5.3.3 Interpretation of reading task difficulty in this research 2.6 Chapter summary Chapter Three Research Methodology 3.1 A proposed framework for TEM-4 reading task difficulty analysis 3.1.1 Introduction to the framework 3.1.2 Profile of new framework 3.1.3 Definitions and explanations of key terms 3.2 Research questions 3.3 Research instruments 3.3.1 Rating instrument 3.3.2 Research materials 3.4 Participants 3.4.1 Instrument raters 3.4.2 Test takers 3.5 Data collection 3.5.1 Rated variables 3.5.2 Counted variables 3.5.3 Mathematically calculated variables 3.5.4 Data preparation and management 3.6 Data analysis procedures 3.6.1 Reliability of ratings 3.6.2 Descriptive statistical analysis 3.6.3 Pair-wise correlation 3.6.4 Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) 3.6.5 Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) 3.6.6 Multiple regression (MR) 3.7 Chapter summary Chapter Four Results and Discussions 4.1 Reliability of ratings 4.2 Descriptive statistics of reading test in TEM-4 2005 and 2006 4.3 Standardization of the 85 variables 4.4 Pair-wise correlation 4.5 Exploratory factor analyses 4.6 Confirmatory factor analyses 4.7 Multiple regression 4.8 Chapter summary Chapter Five Conclusions 5.1 Summary of findings 5.2 Theoretical implications 5.3 Methodological implications 5.4 Implications for language testing practice 5.5 Limitations of the study 5.6 Suggestions for further research 5.7 Chapter summary Referenees Appendix A Rating instrument for TEM-4 reading characteristics Appendix B T score descriptive statistics for task characteristic variables Appendix C Pair-wise correlations between item difficulty and reading task characteristic variables Appendix D Reading comprehension section of the 2005 TEM-4 Appendix E Reading comprehension section of the 2006 TEM-4
